Feeding in the Early Years | paediatricnutrition.com

Vitamin A – is your child getting enough?

feedjourn — Tue, 14 Apr 2026 14:33:30 +0000

Vitamin A deficiency is rare in the UK, but recent evidence around poor dietary intakes of foods rich in vitamin A in the early years and teens, as well as case reports of deficiency are on the increase. It is a signifiant problem worldwide, especially in global south, and is the most common preventable cause of blindness in the world. Infants, young children and pregnant women are most at risk. The UK Department of Health & Social Care recommends Vitamin A, C and D supplements for all children from 6 months to 5 years. Free vitamins can be accessed for supported families on low incomes. In this 10-minute blog, I will share more about:

Food Sources of Vitamin A
Expressing daily needs for Vitamin A
Reports on low intakes of Vitamin A
Limited fortification of foods with Vitamin A
Vitamin A essential for health
Vitamin A supplements and take aways

1. Food Sources of Vitamin A

Vitamin A comes from both plants and animals; beta-carotene from plants provides one sixth the potency of retinol, the animal source of Vitamin A. Full fat diary products like yoghurt and cheese, plus oily fish and egg yolks are good daily sources of retinol and with butter and cream additional excellent sources, and eaten in moderation. Liver and cod liver oil are both extraordinarily high in retinol, and as a fat-soluble vitamin, humans and animals store Vitamin A in body tissues, primarily the liver. Pregnant women and those planning pregnancy should avoid eating liver or cold liver oil, as high blood levels of retinol, can risk affecting a developing foetus. However, during pregnancy and lactation needs for Vitamin A are increased. Vitamin A-rich foods plant sources include orange-coloured fruits and vegetables like carrots, pumpkin, sweet potato, mango, cantaloup melon and apricots, also greens like kale, spinach and peas. For maternal diets excluding cow's milk and products, with infants with Cow's Milk Allergy, a vitamin supplement containing sufficient Vitamin A is essential. Find out more details here on Food Sources of Vitamin A

2. Expressing daily needs for Vitamin A

We often now think about Vitamin A as "retinol-equivalents or RE" to give one figure taking account of the difference in potency from retinol and beta-carotene. Vitamin A is also expressed as International Units or IU, each IU is equivalent to 0.3ug of RE. Most supplement labels will express both, but foods are unlikely to mention Vitamin A content on labels. Special consideration is given during pregnancy due to the risk of high blood levels of Vitamin A as retinol. The market leading brand of vitamins for conception, pregnancy and breastfeeding contain no Vitamin A, and so food sources are most important.

Infants from 6 month 350ug RE
Young children aged 1-5 years 400ug RE
Children aged 7-10 years 500ug RE
Teens aged 11-18 years 600ug RE
Lactation 1,000ug for first 6 months; 700ug thereafter RE

3. Reports on Low Intakes of Vitamin A

The Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition's 2024 Report Feeding Young Children aged 1-5 years reports low intakes for Vitamin A in low wage families, with only 10% uptake of of free vitamins A, C and D.

4. Limited Fortification of foods with Vitamin A

Alternative dairy products eg. plant milks, cheese, yoghurt and spreading fats contain little or no vitamin A. Soya milks and their products are not a naturally rich source of Vitamin A, and market leading brands do not routinely fortify. There is no longer a mandate in the UK to fortify foods with Vitamin A. Some manufacturers add beta-carotene for colour eg. in plant based margarines, but the Vitamin A content is negligible. Vegan cheese substitutes contain little or no vitamin A. Finally, there is no longer routine fortification of low fat dairy milk such as skimmed or semi-skimmed in the UK. So, understanding the role of vitamin A, its best food sources, and how much we need is an important part of nutrition know-how and self-care.

5. Essential Vitamin A

There is increasing incidence of Vitamin A deficiency in UK children and children living in the UK, particularly for children with longterm restricted diets eg. those with ARFID and Autism. As Dietitians, we are seeing increasing case reports of preventable blindness presenting in children with highly restrictive diets, as a result of identified Vitamin A deficiency. Essential nutrients are those the body needs for very specific functions, and that cannot otherwise be fulfilled. Vitamin A is essential for :

protection and repair of mucous membrane cells of the gut and lungs
development and maintenance of a healthy immune system
development and maintenance of healthy eyes, vision an night vision adaption

6. Vitamin A Supplements and Take Aways

All children aged 6 months to 5 years are advised to take a supplement containing vitamins A, C and D, to support development stages, and protect against deficiency.
Healthy Start (previously Sure Start) provides free vitamin supplements A, C & D to all children under 5 years, however uptake of these are very low at 10%. Reasons include limited awareness about availability as well as logistics and stocking problems.Find out more here https://www.healthystart.nhs.uk/
For shop-bought supplements, standard amounts providing 100% of the recommended daily amount within a multivitamin supplement are the best option.
The continued trend for low fat and UPF products (highest in young children at 47-59%of energy intake), further displaces intake of Vitamin A, making children vulnerable to infections, poor eye, gut and respiratory health. Dietary sources are superior whenever possible, providing additional energy, protein and other essential nutrients.

Don't forget your FREE Guide to Food Sources of Vitamin A

Helping children love real food! x

Any Veg Omelette

feedjourn — Tue, 24 Feb 2026 14:23:03 +0000

Omelettes are a quick and easy breakfast, light lunch or nourishing evening meal, and packed with essential nutrients. Great for using up leftover veggies from dinner, or the back of the fridge, which might otherwise go to waste. My 3 kids took a long time seeing me eating this kind of food, before they wanted to eat it themselves. And in my own experience, together with a solid body of food pattern evidence, this tells us that kids take time to develop their food preferences. However, being exposed to a wide range of foods, with all their senses in their early years of growing up, whether they are eating them or not, has a positive influence on developing diverse food preferences. What you show them by your own food habits, matters. Eggs are an incredible source of goodness for all ages of children. See my latest post on Making more of Eggs for nutritional information.

Ingredients

Makes 4 portions

25mls

Vegetable oil

6 x large

Fresh British Lion Stamped Eggs

180mls

Milk of your choice

120g

Grated cheese of your choice

Handful

Left over veggies eg. cabbage, broccoli, spring onions, spinach

Pinch

Seasoning of your choice eg. pinch sea salt, black pepper, celery salt, pinch dried herbs

Method

gently fry vegetables or leftovers in the oil, on a medium heat in a non-stick pan
meanwhile switch the eggs with a fork until of a uniform texture, adding a little seasoning if wished eg. pepper, celery salt, garlic and switch in the milk
once the veggies are browned, add in the egg mixture and turn up the heat
once you see bubbles around the edges, with a non-stick spatula, gently draw the outer egg mixture towards the middle of the pan and turn the heat down
gently move the omelette-shaped egg mixture around, cooking for 5 minutes on a medium heat, until the eggs becomes more solid
add (optional) grated cheese on top and continue on a medium heat for 2 minutes
for a puffed up omelette, finish under a hot grill
for a money saving tip, finish in the pan
using a wide non-stick spatula, turn the omelette over for another 1-2 minutes to brown on the other side

Tasty, nourishing and good for your brain, your budget, your time

Helping Children Love Real Food x

Making More of Eggs

feedjourn — Mon, 23 Feb 2026 16:09:39 +0000

We love eggs in our household … and get through 2 dozen every week! They are a powerhouse of protein, essential fats and a wide range of vitamins and trace elements. Nutritional building blocks for the growing brain and body, supporting mental wellbeing and mood. Versatile, quick, and affordable, I usually buy eggs from my local butcher; they’re super fresh, with deep orange yolks and shape-defined whites, indicating their freshness and quality. This also tells me something about the welfare of the chickens that hatched them. Including eggs daily in your family diet provides a wealth of essential nutrients, and are highly bio-available, meaning in a form the body can use. In this blog, I’ll explore safety assurances, health concerns, nutritional composition, and share an easy recipe for the whole family.

Safety assurance background - Salmonella

Egg intake plummeted in the mid-1980’s following a leaked report about dangerous levels of salmonella bacteria found in hen's eggs. The then junior health minister, Edwina Curry stated that most eggs contain salmonella, and especially raw or soft -boiled eggs should not be eaten by infants, pregnant women and the elderly due to fears of salmonella poisoning, and potential fatality! 400 million eggs were destroyed and 4 million hens slaughtered. It took 10 years before confidence in eggs started to return. The Lion Stamp of safety assurance and traceability was introduced in 1988 and 90% of British eggs now have the Lion Stamp, with raw and soft-boiled eggs considered safe to eat, for everyone.

Cholesterol

Another blight on the goodness of eggs has been their high cholesterol contents. Eggs contain relatively high amounts of cholesterol, all found in the yolk, where other essential nutrients are found. We know now, through controlled trials and meta-analysis, that the cholesterol in egg yolks, (and other foods) have very little effect on blood cholesterol for most people. 1-2 eggs are recommended daily for the wide range of nutritional benefits they provide. A detailed summary about fats and cholesterol from Zoe’s nutritional research can be found here.

An abundance of essential nutrients

Essential nutrients are required for very specific functions, and which cannot be made by the body, and absence of which will result in nutrient deficiency. And so, essential nutrients must be derived from our diets, to maintain these specific and often vital functions. For example, DHA, an essential Omega 3 fat found in rich amounts in egg yolk, is an important component of brain cell membranes. Deficiency of DHA in premature infants, results in slow visual processing, visual and cognitive impairment, and as a result became a mandatory addition to all infant formula in 2020. Breast milk naturally contains high amounts of DHA, a reflection of nature's imperative to provide for the developing foetus and infant. And of course, pregnant and lactating mumma's do need extra DHA, otherwise they utilise their own stores (from brain structures) to provide it for their offspring! Lack of essential nutrients can mean that we function sub-optimally, affecting health, wellbeing and performance. Eggs are of high biological value in supporting development and maintenance of the brain in particular, and also the body due to essential proteins, iron, and B vitamins. Eggs provide a rich range of essential nutrients, readily absorbed by the body, and below I give a breakdown of how the essential nutrients in eggs support the brain and body.

High biological value protein containing all essential amino acids: the building blocks for body and brain. Rich in DHA, an omega-3 essential fat, and choline an essential neurotransmitter parent substance
Egg yolks contain the essential omega-3 fat DHA and are found in high (but variable) amounts in egg yolks and mothers’ milk. Another reason why quality, freshness and animal welfare are so important in selecting your eggs, and eating a high-quality diet throughout child-bearing years (and beyond) is so important
DHA keeps the membranes (the outer boundary) of our brain cells functioning well, which allows them to communicate easily with other cells
DHA provides structural support (building blocks) for those brain cell membranes, making up about 50% of the membrane, which protects & maintains, enables communication & nutrient transport, as well as brain development and repair throughout the whole of the life cycle. This alone makes eggs of high value in infancy and early years, but also for the whole family
Choline is another essential component of eggs. It is. The parent substance for making neurotransmitters (chemical messengers in the brain) responsible for enhancing mood, memory, cognitive functions, early and life-long brain development and protection
Choline and DHA work together to support brain and eye development in pregnancy and early infancy. Both nutrients work independently and also support the effectiveness of the other
1 whole egg provides over 30% of daily needs for both choline and DHA, which are around 100mg for children, 200mg for adults, with needs up to 400mg in pregnancy and breastfeeding.
Phosphorus contributes to the maintenance of bones and teeth, cell membrane functions and energy metabolism
A rich source of Vitamin D and Vitamin B12, providing at least 30% of the recommended daily amount per portion. Vitamin D supports healthy bones and teeth, muscles and joints, calcium uptake by bone and immune system function; Vitamin B12 helps mature new red blood cells, supports energy production, immune and nervous system function
A good source of Vitamin A, Vitamin B2 Riboflavin, B5 pantothenic acd, B6 pyridoxine, B7 Biotin and B9 Folic acid, providing at least 15% of the recommended daily amount per portion. These nutrients contribute to a wide range of roles to support energy, growth, blood formation and immune system function
- Vitamin A contributes eye and skin health, immune system function
- Iodine supports the essential functioning of the thyroid gland, production of thyroid hormones, energy and nervous system function
- Selenium acts as an anti-oxidant to protect cells against oxygen damage, immune system and thyroid function

Making more of eggs, and helping children love real food x

Creating Successful Mealtimes

feedjourn — Mon, 02 Feb 2026 15:58:31 +0000

Learning how to eat well is a skill that develops over the childhood years, bringing the focus to enjoying mealtimes, exploring the senses and developing agency around food. By agency I mean building confidence in making good independent choices. And so, creating successful mealtimes within families has some key essential ingredients such as timing, setting intentions and expectations and a diverse food choice. An AI search will quickly provide you with top tips for successful mealtimes, and my own 5 key components of Making Mealtimes Better here.

Starting with a sense of the key stages your child goes through, to understand their most receptive phases, and to help you shape their feeding journey positively. From the ages of 2-5, food typically takes a back seat, when most children’s focus is on movement, play and exploring, and less on trying new foods. In fact, many children narrow their previously accepted range of foods at this age. It’s a completely normal developmental stage, and how we manage that time will influence their relationship with food and their onward food journey.

So rather than giving you a list of top tips and actionable suggestions, I instead offer some principles and questions; the ones I use when co-creating plans with the children and families I work with. I have developed a framework called Structure, Nurture & Boundaries, which takes account of the multiple ways in which food touches our lives. Social and family relationships, sensory embodied experience, physical, emotional and immune health, gut health and mood, as well as the rapid growth & learning that children go through. So, yes there is a lot going on! Lets take a wider view ...

What do the developmental phases in eating look like?

Each phase of childhood comes with its own milestones and feeding challenges.

Infants need safety, comfort, and sensory connection, and is the ideal time for exploring a wide variety of foods. It’s no coincidence that everything goes in their mouth! Ultimately a feeding skill that needs practice if children are to self-feed!
Toddlers are all about play, movement, and curiosity which need regular fuel. Carbohydrate foods are often their go-to, with fussiness and elected eating very common. Mealtimes can be messy and behaviours tricky.
School-age children begin forming social relationships with food – and this can be a key time to work on developing confidence and enjoyment in social eating.
Puberty brings emotional, social, and physical shifts that impact appetite, nutritional needs, weight, physiological changes and eating habits; an important time to maintain structure and boundaries, whilst exploring the connecting and caring principles of nurture.
Adolescence is a time period super-charged with change, in which food, mood and body connection become key objects of identification. Inviting your teens to co-creating different ideas of experiencing family food, providing agency and helps keep them involved.

What about Structure, Nurture & Boundaries - what does that mean?

Structure is about meeting nutritional needs for key nutrients, creating a balance in food groups from plants and animals, creating rhythmic patterns such as sleep, bowels habits, growth for support wellbeing. Nurture explores connection, communication and how we feed with care … it's about noticing, giving right attention, tone, and presence. From eye contact in infancy to listening and being present in the teen years, it’s all about connection! Developing self-care and agency around food choices, connecting with others and ourselves. Small moments of nurture build confidence and emotional safety, helping children to create ways to self-care as they grow. Boundaries create clarity and confidence, with safe, clear expectations around food and mealtimes. Boundaries can help children feel secure and parents feel empowered. Boundaries also support respectful feeding relationships, help children develop agency and grow into capable, confident eaters.

And so asking yourself, what are the 3 main issues that I'll like to tackle?

Make a list ... and then book a discovery call with me! You don't have work it all out by yourself!

I'm here to help! x

Good Sources of Calcium

feedjourn — Fri, 01 Aug 2025 09:39:19 +0000

Infants and children need good sources of calcium in their diets on a daily basis. Calcium absorption in the gut is variable and ranges from 25-50%, increasing when intake is low and reducing when intake is high. Plenty of foods rich in calcium are especially important throughout infancy to support the rapid bone growth and bone mineralisation that occurs at this time. The uptake of calcium by bones is then regulated by Vitamin D, with Vitamin D deficiency limiting bone mineralisation even in the presence of adequate calcium. Growth spurts during infancy and childhood, from a surge in growth hormone provides a boost to calcium absorption, which further strengthens bone mineralisation. Absorption of calcium from breast milk is very efficient at around 66% and from formula milk around 40%. For all infants and young children offer them calcium rich foods every day.

Dairy products like milk, cheese and yoghurt are the UK’s best sources of calcium for infants and young children
Calcium is also found in tinned fish, nut butters, tahini or sesame seed pulp, hummus, figs, dates, and green vegetables
White wheat flour is fortified in the UK with 120mg Calcium per 100g
Water in areas of hard water like Cambridge contains 120mg calcium per litre
For all children with cow’s milk allergy, take care to offer calcium enriched products, checking sources of other valuable nutrients such as protein, iodine,
Vitamin D as well as overall calories
Prolonged poor calcium intake will lead to brittle bones that break more easily, both in childhood and in later adulthood
Exercise and weight bearing activity will also strengthen bone
Have a quick check on recommended intakes to check if your child is getting enough calcium
Download the portions of calcium rich foods below
Infants and young children need a Vitamin D supplement containing a minimum of 10ug daily until 5 years and thereafter for a minimum of the 6 Winter/Spring months to maintain good levels

Recommended Intakes

Daily calcium needs during infancy are 525mg
5-600mls formula provides the majority of calcium during infancy
Breast fed infants depend on mum’s diet, and a calcium and vitamin D is advisable for mum
Daily calcium needs during early years are 350-450mg; provided by 3-4 portions of calcium rich foods
Daily calcium needs during primary school are 450-700mg; provided by 4-5 portions of calcium rich foods
For all children with cow’s milk allergy, take care to offer calcium enriched products, checking sources of other valuable nutrients such as protein, iodine, Vitamin D as well as overall calories.

Iron Deficiency Anaemia in Infancy

feedjourn — Tue, 01 Jul 2025 21:38:39 +0000

Iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) is the most common nutritional problem affecting infants with 60% of 6-12 month old babies in the UK having low dietary iron intake, a key risk factor for developing IDA. Early childhood is a time of vulnerability as iron deficiency anaemia in this period is associated with brain development. It’s a time of rapid physical growth, and a time when dietary iron needs are at their highest. Various risk factors are known to contribute to IDA: particularly premature birth, very low birth weight and maternal iron deficiency. Infant feeding practices including the introduction of solids are important considerations. Iron absorption is limited (by the gut) to around 15-20% and this becomes relevant when thinking about choosing iron-rich foods to offer. Iron contained within plant and animal foods differ, with absorption being higher from animal foods, which can be improved in the presence of Vitamin C. Here I provide some information about nutritional needs, dietary sources and infant feeding practices.

Infants' Nutritional Needs and Dietary Sources of Iron
An essential micronutrient, iron is required to make haemoglobin, the red pigment in haemoglobin, which carries oxygen around the body within the red blood cells. IDA means that the blood carries less oxygen than the body needs. Infants with IDA will be pale and tired, have poor resistance to infection and their general health, appetite and vitality is limited. Typically, infants don’t show any signs in the early stages of IDA, and it commonly goes undiagnosed until they become symptomatic. Iron needs are highest at 6-12 months, when term babies will have used up all their body’s stores of iron, which built up during the last trimester of pregnancy. Dietary iron needs rapidly increase then. Introducing iron-rich foods is critical at this age: to provide essential dietary iron, and to introduce and establish the familiar tastes, smells and textures of iron-rich foods. Red meat, liver, egg yolk apricots, dried fruits, green vegetables, lentils, avocado, oily fish, seed and nut butters are all food rich in iron. The required daily intake of iron for a healthy, term baby is 7.8mg, half of that needed by a women of child bearing age.

Infant Feeding Practices and the Introduction of Iron-Rich Foods
Breast-fed infants need iron-rich foods on a daily basis from the weaning period, as breast milk contains very little iron. Drinking iron-fortified formula does protect against IDA, but formula-fed infants also need to become familiar with iron-rich foods to broaden their diet. Becoming familiar iron-rich foods at an early age improves acceptance and continual consumption of these foods, throughout toddlerhood. This applies to other food too, that have been eaten regualrly during the sensitive period at 6-12 month, and infants are more familiar with those foods and have practiced eating them. First formula milks, those with a higher ratio of whey, are best suited for all babies until 1 year for many reasons, with improved absorption of nutrients including iron; there is none for follow-on formulas, as all formulas comply with standardised contents for key nutrients.

Supporting your child’s growth & development

feedjourn — Sat, 01 Mar 2025 14:02:20 +0000

Children’s nutritional needs evolve as they grow, and so do the challenges parents face - especially when it comes to food and gut health. Whether you're navigating selective eating, food allergies, tummy troubles, or busy schedules, I offer tailored guidance to support your child’s health and your family’s unique journey. From infancy to adolescence, nutrition plays a vital role in physical, emotional, and immune development. In this blog, we explore how the structure, nurture, and boundaries framework can support family mealtimes, appetite regulation, and lifelong healthy habits.

The Structure, Nurture & Boundaries Framework

1. Establishing a Mealtime Routine

The most effective way to make mealtimes better is by creating consistent mealtimes. Establishing regular meals and snack times helps set expectations for when they will eat. Stimulating for hunger hormones, this will drive and regulate appetite, as well as promote growth. Routines also reduce the likelihood of constant grazing, which often negatively impacts a child’s appetite for main meals. And we know that young children are often asking for food! Having a routine means that children are invited to sit down with family members and eat meals together; modelling is an important part of how children learn to eat well. It also allows them to become more open to trying new foods, and children learn by copying adults. Establishing a healthy, positive and nourishing relationship with food takes time, and with a routine throughout childhood. Over time, children learn that mealtimes are an opportunity to eat, experiment and enjoy a wide variety of foods, leading to long-term healthy eating patterns.

2. Creating a Positive Mealtime Environment

The environment in which children eat plays a significant role in shaping their eating behaviors. Creating a calm, relaxed atmosphere helps children to feel calm, welcome and settled, which fosters a better appetite, natural curiosity and an openness to eating, and to trying new foods. Mealtime battlegrounds are unlikely to develop feeling of safety and good memories around food, and these experiences can stay with children a long time. Pressuring children to eat certain foods or finish everything on their plate is unlikely to result in long-term healthy eating habits. Instead, allow them to eat at their own pace and encourage them to listen to their hunger and fullness cues. Having a boundary of around 20 minutes is about right for most young children.

3. Offering a Variety of Nutrient-Rich Foods

Paediatric nutrition emphasises the importance of offering a wide variety of nutrient-dense foods that support a child’s growth and development. Children may be hesitant to try new foods at first, but exposing them to different colours, textures and flavours will help expand their palate over time. Serve balanced meals that include a variety of vegetables, wholegrains, proteins, fruits, dairy or dairy alternatives, and be a role model. Children are more likely to do what you do, rather than what you say! Gradually introducing new foods in a non-threatening way helps children feel more comfortable, and more likely to try them. Encourage children to explore new foods by offering small portions of unfamiliar items alongside their favourite foods.

4. Encouraging Mindful Eating

Mindful eating is an approach that encourages children to focus on the taste, texture, and enjoyment of their food rather than rushing through meals. This can help children develop a deeper appreciation for the food they are eating and improve their overall eating habits. Teach children to take small bites, chew slowly, and savor their food. Encourage them to pay attention to their body’s signals, including when they are hungry or full. Mindful eating can also help prevent overeating and emotional eating, as children learn to recognise and respect their body’s natural hunger and satiety cues.

5. Involving Children in Meal Preparation

One of the best ways to make mealtimes better is by involving children in meal preparation. When children are engaged in the selecting, preparing and cooking process, they become more engaged in the food through all their sensory learning. In addition, this gives them more agency around food; ownership over their meals, and provides opportunities for learning. There are multiple ways to engage children with food, and this encourages them adapt, try something new and learn to enjoy a wide range of foods. Children are naturally curious, and this is a fun and interesting way to foster a positive attitude toward food, eating and nutrition.

6. Setting Realistic Expectations

It’s important to have realistic expectations when it comes to children’s eating habits. Not every mealtime will go smoothly, and it’s normal for children to be picky or go through phases where they favour certain foods over others. The key is to remain patient and consistent in offering a range of options, without compromising nutritious and balanced eating, allowing for those days or times where celebration or favourite foods are offered. Over time, children’s preferences change, and they become more willing to try different foods and expand their palate. The goal is to create a positive environment where healthy eating becomes a natural developmental process.

Making mealtimes better for children involves creating a structured, positive environment where healthy eating habits can be explored and start to flourish. By establishing routines, offering a variety of nutrient-dense foods, and encouraging mindful eating, parents can help children develop a healthy relationship with food that will benefit them throughout their lives. The principles of paediatric nutrition provide valuable guidance on how to support children’s nutritional needs while fostering positive mealtime behaviours. Ultimately, improving mealtimes is about creating a space where children feel comfortable exploring food, enjoying meals, and nourishing their bodies with the nutrients they need to grow and thrive.